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Unit 8 The Twenties Century (1902—1999) l Key Words: 20th Century English Literature, Thomas Hardy, John Galsworthy, George Bernard Shaw, Yeats, Psychological Fiction: Lawrence, Joyce, Woolf l Target: The students are supposed to get the basic literary history of the twenties centuries, the important figures of this period and their works.. l Study Points:
1. Thomas
Hardy—Tess of the D’Urbervilles l Time Span: 3 weeks Historical background 1. Industry and science transform ways of living. 2. The modern woman appears. 3. The Celtic revival furthers Irish independence. 4. World War I & II occurred in this period. Since then, what concern everyone are the world affairs. 1. Thomas Hardy (1840-1928) • Thomas Hardy is usually considered as a novelist of the 19th century and a poet of the 20th century.• He was the son of a village stonemason in Dorset; thus he was close tot he country life by his origins, and he never lost feeling for it.• As he grew up, he underwent the painful loss of faith so common among intellectuals in England in the second half of the 19th century; this led him to a tragic philosophy that human beings are the victims of indifferent forces.• At the same time he witnessed the steady weakening from within and erosion from without of the part of rural England with which he was so much identified.• This region is the six south-western counties of England, approximately coterminous with the 6th-century Saxon kingdom of Wessex, by which name he calls them in his "Novels of Character and Environment."• These novels are by far his best known:– Under the Greenwood Tree (1872);– Far from the Madding Crowd (1874);– The Return of the Native (1878);– The Mayor of Casterbridge (1886);– The Woodlanders (1887);• Tess of the D'Urbervilles (1891);• Jude the Obscure (1895).• Two volumes of stories are• Wessex Tales (1888)• Life's Little Ironies (1894).• Hardy's originality was his discernment of the intimate relationship of character and environment, and his characters nearly always became less convincing when this relationship loses closeness, ie in his socially higher, more sophisticated characters.• This may account for the fact that the other two groups of his novels have much less prestige. He called them• "Romances and Fantasies," including– A Pair of Blue Eyes, 1873;– The Trumpet-Major, 1880;– Two on a Tower, 1882;– A Group of Noble Dames, 1891;– The Well-Beloved, 1897• "Novels of Ingenuity,"– Desperate Remedies, 1871;– The Hand of Ethelberta, 1876;– A Laodicean, 1881• Hardy's poetry is as distinguished as his novels; indeed he regarded himself as primarily a poet.• Though he wrote poetry form the beginning of his career, his best verse was chiefly the fruit of his later years when he had abandoned novels.• It is in some respects very traditional--ballads such as the Trampwoman's Tragedy and tuneful, rhyming lyrics.• But though traditional--in touch with folksong and ballad--Hardy was never conventional.• His diction is distinctive, he experimented constantly with form and stress, and the singing rhythms subtly respond to the movement of his intense feelings; the consequent poignance and sincerity has brought him the admiration of poets since 1945, who seem especially sensitive to dishonesty of feeling.• His lyrics have the peculiarity that they nearly always centre on incident, in a way that gives them dramatic sharpness.• Amongst the most admired are some that he wrote to his dead first wife, included in Satires of Circumstance (1914).2. John Galsworthy (1867-1933) ◆ Life • John Galsworthy was one of the most popular English novelists and dramatists of the early 20th century.• He was born in Kingston Hills, Surrey, and educated at Harrow School and the University of Oxford.• He was admitted to the bar in 1890 but soon abandoned law for writing.• Galsworthy was awarded the 1932 Nobel Prize in literature.◆ Works Galsworthy wrote his early works under the pen name John Sinjohn. His fiction is concerned principally with English upper middle-class life; his dramas frequently find their themes in this stratum of society, but also often deal, sympathetically, with the economically and socially oppressed and with questions of social justice. Most of his novels deal with the history, from Victorian times through the first quarter of the 20th century, of an upper middle-class English family, the Forsytes. ◇ The Forsyte Saga The principal member of the family is Soames Forsyte, who exemplifies the drive of his class for the accumulation of material wealth, a drive that often conflicts with human values. The Forsyte series includes The Man of Property (1906), the novelette "Indian Summer of a Forsyte" (pub. in the collection Five Tales,1918), In Chancery (1920), Awakening (1920), and To Let (1921). These five titles were published as The Forsyte Saga (1922). The Forsyte story was continued by Galsworthy in The White Monkey (1924), The Silver Spoon (1926), and Swan Song (1928), which were published together under the title A Modern Comedy (1929). These were followed in turn by Maid in Waiting (1931), Flowering Wilderness (1932), and Over the River (1933), published together posthumously as End of the Chapter (1934). ◇ Plays Galsworthy wrote 28 plays. In his plays he dwelt upon the burning social problems of his time. His plays include Strife (1909: depicting the conflict between labour and capital), Justice (1910), The Pigeon (1912), Old English (1924), and The Roof (1929). ◆ Summary The novels and plays of Galsworthy give a complete picture of English bourgeois society. A bourgeois himself, Galsworthy nevertheless clearly saw the decline of his class and truthfully portrayed this in his works. Galsworthy is also a great stylist. His style is remarkable for its strength and elasticity, for its powerful sweep, brilliant illustrations and deep psychological analysis. 3. George Bernard Shaw (1856-1950) ◆ Life and Literary Career George Bernard Shaw (1856-1950), Irish-born writer, considered the most significant British dramatist since Shakespeare. In addition to being a prolific playwright (he wrote 50 stage plays), he was also the most trenchant pamphleteer since the Irish-born satirist Jonathan Swift and the most readable music critic and best theater critic of his generation. He was also one of literature’s great letter writers. A visionary and mystic, inwardly shy and quietly generous, Shaw was at the same time the antithesis of a romantic; he was ruthless as a social critic and irreverent toward institutions. Leavening even his most serious works for the stage with a comic texture, he turned what might have been treatises in other hands into plays animated by epigrams and lively dialogue. George Bernard Shaw (1856-1950) was born on July 26, 1856, in Dublin. His impractical father, an unsuccessful merchant, had emerged from the Protestant Irish gentry; for extra income his mother taught voice pupils. After attending both Protestant and Catholic day schools, Shaw, at the age of 16, took a clerical job; thereafter he was self-educated. When his parents’ marriage failed, his mother and sisters went to London, and Shaw joined them there in 1876. The next decade was one of frustration and near poverty. Neither music criticism (written under the name of a family friend) nor a telephone company job lasted very long, and only two of the five novels Shaw wrote between 1879 and 1883 found publishers: Cashel Byron’s Profession (1882), a novel about prizefighting as an occupation that anticipates the theme of prostitution as an antisocial profession in the play Mrs. Warren’s Profession (1893), and An Unsocial Socialist (1883). By the mid-1880s Shaw discovered the writings of Karl Marx and turned to socialist polemics and critical journalism. He also became a firm (and lifelong) believer in vegetarianism, a spellbinding orator, and tentatively, a playwright. He was the force behind the newly founded (1884) Fabian Society, a middle-class socialist group that aimed at the transformation of English government and society. Through the Fabian Society’s founders, Sidney and Beatrice Webb, Shaw met the Irish heiress Charlotte Payne-Townshend, whom he married in 1898. Shaw’s early journalism ranged from book reviews and art criticism to brilliant music columns (many of them championing the controversial work of the German composer Richard Wagner) from 1888 to 1890 under the signature "Corno di Bassetto" (basset horn), later under his own initials. Shifting to the Saturday Review as drama critic, a post he held from 1895 to 1898, Shaw became the champion of the Norwegian dramatist Henrik Ibsen, about whom he had already written his influential The Quintessence of Ibsenism (1891). ◇ THE FIRST PLAYS Shaw’s first play, Widowers’ Houses (produced 1892), combined Ibsenite devices and aims with a flouting of the romantic conventions that were still being exploited in the English theater. It was eventually published in his Plays, Pleasant and Unpleasant (1898). These first seven works for the stage (the others were Candida, The Philanderer, Arms and the Man, The Man of Destiny, Mrs. Warren’s Profession, and You Never Can Tell) received brief runs at best or no productions at all. Mrs. Warren’s Profession was banned by the censor as obscene. One of his Three Plays for Puritans (The Devil’s Disciple, Caesar and Cleopatra, and Captain Brassbound’s Conversion), published in 1901, fared slightly better. The Devil’s Disciple, a spoof of 19th-century sentimental melodrama set in America during the Revolution, became a success in the United States because of its wit and the very melodramatic elements Shaw had set out to satirize. Shaw’s next work, Man and Superman (1903), transformed the Don Juan legend into a play, and play-within-a-play. Although on the surface it was a comedy of manners about love and money, its action gave Shaw the opportunity to explore the intellectual climate of the new century in a series of discussions; these are the substance of the nonrealistic, almost operatic, third act, "Don Juan in Hell," often since produced independently. Man and Superman was in repertory with John Bull’s Other Island (1904), originally written for the Abbey Theatre in Dublin but rejected as a slur on the Irish character; the pair established Shaw’s popular reputation in London as playwright and sage. ◇ HIGH COMEDY In Major Barbara (1905, eventually made into a motion picture) and The Doctor’s Dilemma (1906), Shaw continued, through high comedy, to probe society’s complicity in its own evils. In the first play, the principles and practices of a munitions manufacturer are discovered to be religious in the highest sense, in contrast to the public and private hypocrisies of the Salvation Army and its benefactors. In The Doctor’s Dilemma, Shaw produced a satire both on the professions and on the artistic temperament. With the discussion plays that followed—Getting Married (1908), Misalliance (1910), and Fanny’s First Play (1911)—Shaw moved into what might be described as serious farce; intellectual comedy with his usual verve for dialogue, but introducing nonrealistic elements that he later exploited more fully. Although Fanny became his longest running hit up to that time, the most durable of the three has proved to be Misalliance. The mystical side of Shaw, meanwhile, found expression in The Shewing-Up of Blanco Posnet (1909), about the sudden conversion of a horse thief, and in Androcles and the Lion (1913), which concerned true and false religious exaltation, and used the traditions of the medieval miracle play and of the Victorian Christmas pantomime. Shaw’s comic masterpiece, Pygmalion (1914; many years later popular also as a film and as the basis for the musical comedy My Fair Lady), was claimed by its author to be a didactic play about phonetics; it is, rather, about love and class and the exploitation of one human being by another. ◇ THE POSTWAR YEARS Pygmalion was as ebullient in its outlook as Shaw’s next major play, Heartbreak House (1919), exposing the spiritual bankruptcy of his generation, was pessimistic. The intellectual watershed of World War I (1914-1918) caused the difference. Attempting to find his way out of postwar pessimism, Shaw next wrote five linked parable-plays under the collective title Back to Methuselah (1921); they explore human progress from Eden to a science-fiction future. Despite some brilliant writing, the cycle is uneven in its theatrical values and seldom performed. For Saint Joan (1923), Shaw received the 1925 Nobel Prize in literature. In Shaw’s hands Joan of Arc became a combination of practical mystic, heretical saint, and inspired genius. ◇ THE LAST PLAYS Shaw continued to write into his 90s. His last plays, beginning with The Apple Cart (1929), turned, as Europe plunged into new crises, to the problem of how people might best govern themselves and release their potential. These were themes he had handled before, but he now approached them with a tragicomic and nonrealistic extravagance that owed more to the ancient Greek comedies of Aristophanes than to Ibsen. Shaw died in his country home at Ayot St. Lawrence on November 2, 1950. To the end, Shaw continued to publish brilliantly argued prefaces to his plays and to flood publishers with books, articles, and cantankerous letters to the editor. Among his other work, the novella The Adventures of the Black Girl in Her Search for God (1932) and The Intelligent Woman’s Guide to Socialism and Capitalism (1928) remain useful compendia of his ideas. Thousands of his sparkling letters have also been published, for example, those to English stage luminaries Ellen Terry and Mrs. Patrick Campbell. Although he founded no "school" of playwrights like himself, by forging a drama combining moral passion and intellectual conflict, reviving the older comedy of manners, and experimenting with symbolic farce, Shaw helped to reshape the stage of his time. His bold, critical intelligence and sharp pen, brought to bear on contemporary issues, helped mold the thought of his own and later generations. 4. Modernism in Poetry: W. B. Yeats (1865-1939) William Butler Yeats (1865-1939), Irish poet and dramatist, and Nobel laureate, who was a leader of the Irish Renaissance and one of the foremost writers of the 20th century. Yeats was born in Dublin on June 13, 1865, the son of the noted Irish painter John Butler Yeats. He was schooled in London and in Dublin, where he studied painting, and vacationed in county Sligo, which inspired his enthusiasm for Irish tradition. In 1887 he moved with his family to London and became interested in Hinduism, theosophy, and occultism. He wrote lyrical, symbolic poems on pagan Irish themes, such as The Wanderings of Oisin (1889) and The Lake Isle of Innisfree (1893), in the romantic melancholy tone he believed characteristic of the ancient Celts. He also wrote The Celtic Twilight (1893) and The Secret Rose (1897), which deal with Irish legends. On a visit to Ireland he met the beautiful Irish patriot Maud Gonne, whom he loved unrequitedly the rest of his life. She inspired much of his early work and drew him into the Irish nationalist movement for independence. Yeats returned to Ireland in 1896. He became a close friend of the nationalist playwright Lady Gregory, whom he visited often at her estate at Coole Parke and with whom he traveled in Italy. With Lady Isabella Augusta Gregory he helped found what became in 1904 the famous Abbey Theatre. As its director and dramatist, he helped develop the theater into one of the leading theatrical companies of the world, and a center of the Irish literary revival called the Irish Renaissance. Among the plays he created for it were Cathleen ni Houlihan (1902), a nationalist prose drama with Maud Gonne as the lead, and Deirdre (1907), a tragedy in verse. In his poetry of this period, such as The Wing Among the Reeds (1899), The Shadowy Waters (1900), and The Green Helmet (1910), Yeats strove to abandon his earlier self-conscious softness and facility. His work, now less mystical and symbolic, became clearer and leaner. As Yeats grew older, he turned to practical politics, serving in the Senate of the new Irish Free State from 1922 to 1928. He also accomplished the feat, rare among poets, of deepening and perfecting his complex styles as the years advanced. His later writings are generally acknowledged to be his best. They were influenced by Georgie Hyde-Lees, his wife since 1917, who had a medium's gift for automated writing. A Vision (1925) is an elaborate attempt in prose to explain the mythology, symbolism, and philosophy that Yeats used in much of his work. It discusses the eternal opposites of objectivity and subjectivity, art and life, soul and body that are the basis of his philosophy. Other poetic works in this vein are The Wild Swans at Coole (1917), The Tower (1928), and The Winding Stair (1933). Yeats also wrote short plays on the Celtic legendary hero Cuchulain, combined as Four Plays for Dancers (1921). They were strongly influenced by the nô drama of the Japanese court (see Japanese Drama), which was being translated in 1913 by the American poet Ezra Pound. Yeats's plays were designed more for small, appreciative audiences in aristocratic drawing rooms than for the middle-class public in commercial Dublin theaters. He derived much of his innovative technique, such as the use of ritual, masks, chorus, and dance, from the nô drama. In these plays Yeats brought poetry back to theater, from which it had long been absent, and fused strict realism with mythic vision to create poetic dramas as spare and pregnant with mysterious meaning as the images of a dream. Continually revising his work, Yeats recounted episodes from his life in his Autobiographies (1927) and Dramatis Personae (1936). Two later collections are A Full Moon in March (1935) and Last Poems and Two Plays (1939). He received the Nobel Prize in 1923. Yeats died in Roquebrune, France, on January 18, 1939, and was buried in Sligo, Ireland. 5. The Psychological Fiction D. H. Lawrence (1885-1930) Lawrence, D(avid) H(erbert) (1885-1930), English novelist and poet, ranked among the most influential and controversial literary figures of the 20th century. In his more than 40 books he celebrated his vision of the natural, whole human being, opposing the artificiality of modern industrial society with its dehumanization of life and love. His novels were misunderstood, however, and attacked and even suppressed because of their frank treatment of sexual matters. Lawrence was born September 11, 1885, in Eastwood, Nottinghamshire, the son of a coal miner. His mother had been a schoolteacher. The disparity in social status between his parents was a recurrent motif in Lawrence's fiction. A graduate (1908) of University College, Nottingham, Lawrence published his first poems in the English Review in 1909 and his first novel, The White Peacock, in 1911. The most significant of his early fiction, Sons and Lovers (1913), which was in large part autobiographical, deals with life in a mining town. In 1912 Lawrence eloped to the Continent with Frieda Weekley, his former professor's wife (sister of the German aviator Freiherr Manfred von Richthofen), marrying her two years later, after her divorce. Their intense, stormy life together supplied material for much of his writing. The Rainbow (1915) and Women in Love (1921)—perhaps his best novels—explore with outspoken candor the sexual and psychological relationships of men and women. In this period he also wrote two books of verse, Love Poems and Others (1913) and Look! We Have Come Through (1917). Lawrence led a harried life in England during World War I because of his wife's German origin and his own opposition to the war. Tuberculosis added to his problems, and in 1919 he began a period of restless wandering to find a more healthful climate. His travels provided the locales of several books: the Abruzzo region of Italy for The Lost Girl (1920), Sardinia for Sea and Sardinia (1921), and Australia for Kangaroo (1923). During stays in Mexico and Taos, New Mexico (1923-25), he wrote The Plumed Serpent (1926), a novel reflecting Lawrence's fascination with Aztec civilization. His most original poetry, published in Birds, Beasts and Flowers (1923), flowed from his experience of nature in the southwestern United States and the Mediterranean region. From 1926 on Lawrence lived chiefly in Italy, where he wrote and rewrote his most notorious novel, Lady Chatterley's Lover (1928), which deals with the sexually fulfilling love affair between a member of the nobility and her husband's gamekeeper. An expurgated version was published in 1932. Lawrence's third and most sexually explicit version of this work was not published until 1959 in the U.S. and 1960 in England; it had been suppressed in both countries until the courts upheld its publication. Lawrence died March 2, 1930, in a sanatorium in Vence, France. The “Stream of Consciousness” School of Novel Stream of Consciousness, literary technique, first used in the late 19th century, employed to evince subjective as well as objective reality. It reveals the character's feelings, thoughts, and actions, often following an associative rather than a logical sequence, without commentary by the author. Stream of consciousness is often confused with interior monologue, but the latter technique works the sensations of the mind into a more formal pattern: a flow of thoughts inwardly expressed, similar to a soliloquy. The technique of stream of consciousness, however, attempts to portray the remote, preconscious state that exists before the mind organizes sensations. Consequently, the re-creation of a stream of consciousness frequently lacks the unity, explicit cohesion, and selectivity of direct thought. Stream of consciousness, as a term, was first used by William James, the American philosopher and psychologist, in his book The Principles of Psychology (1890). Widely used in narrative fiction, the technique was perhaps brought to its highest point of development in Ulysses (1922) and Finnegans Wake (1939) by the Irish novelist and poet James Joyce. Other exponents of the form were American novelist William Faulkner and British novelist Virginia Woolf. The British writer Dorothy Richardson is considered by some actually to be the pioneer in use of the device. Her novel Pilgrimage (1911-1938), a 12-volume sequence, is an intense analysis of the development of a sensitive young woman and her responses to the world around her. James Joyce (1882-1941) ◆ Life Joyce, James Augustine Aloysius (1882-1941), Irish novelist and poet, whose psychological perceptions and innovative literary techniques, as demonstrated in his epic novel Ulysses, make him one of the most influential writers of the 20th century. Joyce was born in Dublin on February 2, 1882, the son of a poverty-stricken civil servant. He was educated at Jesuit schools, including University College, Dublin. Raised in the Roman Catholic faith, he broke with the church while he was in college. In 1904 he left Dublin with Nora Barnacle, a chambermaid whom he eventually married. They and their two children lived in Trieste, Italy, in Paris, and in Zürich, Switzerland, meagerly supported by Joyce's jobs as a language instructor and by gifts from patrons. In 1907 Joyce suffered an attack of iritis, the first of the severe eye troubles that led to near blindness. After 20 years in Paris, early in World War II, when the Germans invaded France, Joyce moved to Zürich, where he died on January 13, 1941. ◆ Early Works Chamber Music (1907) His first book, Chamber Music (1907), consists of 36 highly finished love poems, which reflect the influence of the Elizabethan lyricists and the English lyric poets of the 1890s. Dubliners (1914) In his second work, Dubliners (1914), a collection of 15 short stories, Joyce dealt with crucial episodes of childhood and adolescence and of family and public life in Dublin. A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man (1916) His first long work of fiction, A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man (1916), is largely autobiographical, re-creating his youth and home life in the story of its protagonist, Stephen Dedalus. In this work Joyce made considerable use of the stream-of-consciousness, or interior-monologue, technique, a literary device that renders all the thoughts, feelings, and sensations of a character with scrupulous psychological realism. Exiles (1918) was a play that he created. ◆ Later Works Ulysses (1922) Joyce attained international fame with the publication (1922) of Ulysses, a novel, the themes of which are based on Homer's Odyssey. Primarily concerned with a 24-hour period in the life of an Irish Jew, Leopold Bloom, Ulysses describes also the same day in the life of Stephen Dedalus, and the story reaches its climax in the meeting of the two characters. The main themes are Bloom's symbolic search for a son and Dedalus's growing sense of dedication as a writer. Joyce further developed the stream-of-consciousness technique in this work as a remarkable means of character portrayal, combining it with the use of mimicry of speech and the parody of literary styles as an overall literary method. Finnegans Wake (1939) Finnegans Wake (1939), Joyce's last and most complex work, is an attempt to embody in fiction a cyclical theory of history. The novel is written in the form of an interrupted series of dreams during one night in the life of the character Humphrey Chimpden Earwicker. Symbolizing all humanity, Earwicker, his family, and his acquaintances blend, as characters do in dreams, with one another and with various historical and mythical figures. Joyce carried his linguistic experimentation to its furthest point in Finnegans Wake by writing English as a composite language based on combinations of parts of words from various languages. Others His other late publications include two collections of verse, Pomes Penyeach (1927) and Collected Poems (1936), and Stephen Hero, which, although not published until 1944, was an early version of A Portrait. Joyce employed symbols to create what he called an "epiphany," the revelation of certain inner qualities. Thus, the earlier writings reveal individual moods and characters and the plight of Ireland and the Irish artist in the early 1900s. The two later works reveal his characters in all their complexity as artists and lovers and in the various aspects of their family relationships. Using experimental techniques to convey the essential nature of realistic situations, Joyce merged in his greatest works the literary traditions of realism, naturalism, and symbolism. Virginia Woolf (1882-1941) Woolf, Virginia (1882-1941), English novelist and critic, whose stream-of-consciousness technique and poetic style are among the most important contributions to the modern novel. Woolf was born Adeline Virginia Stephen in London, the daughter of the biographer and philosopher Sir Leslie Stephen, who educated her at home. About 1905, after her father's death, she and her sister Vanessa—an artist who later married the critic Clive Bell—and their two brothers established a household in the Bloomsbury section of London; it became a gathering place for the former university colleagues of their older brother. The circle, known as the Bloomsbury group, included, in addition to Bell and other members of the London intelligentsia, the writer Leonard Woolf, whom Virginia married in 1912. With her husband she founded the Hogarth Press in 1917. Virginia Woolf's early novels—The Voyage Out (1915), Night and Day (1919), and Jacob's Room (1922)—offer increasing evidence of her determination to expand the scope of the novel beyond mere storytelling. In her next novels, Mrs. Dalloway (1925) and To the Lighthouse (1927), plot is generated by the inner lives of the characters. Psychological effects are achieved through the use of imagery, symbol, and metaphor. Character unfolds by means of the ebb and flow of personal impressions, feelings, and thoughts—a stream-of-consciousness technique. Thus, the inner lives of human beings and their otherwise average circumstances seem extraordinary. Influenced by the French philosopher Henri Bergson, Woolf, like the French writer Marcel Proust, also involved herself in these novels with the concept of time. Although the events in Mrs. Dalloway take place within a fixed 12-hour span, both books convey the passage of time through the moment-to-moment changes within the characters—their appreciation of themselves, others, and their kaleidoscopic worlds. Of her remaining fiction, the novel The Waves (1931) is the most evasive and stylized; and Orlando: A Biography (1928), loosely based on the life of her friend Vita (Victoria Mary) Sackville-West, is a historical fantasy and an analysis of gender, creativity, and identity. Woolf was a critic of considerable influence; her essays are gathered in such volumes as The Common Reader: First Series (1925) and The Common Reader: Second Series (1932). She also wrote biographies, and in A Room of One's Own (1929) she early espoused the cause of women's rights. Her posthumously published journals, extracts from which are collected in A Writer's Diary (1953), are of value to both aspiring writers and to readers of her fiction. On March 28, 1941, depressed by the onset of one of her recurrent periods of mental illness, she committed suicide by drowning. Reference Books: 1. Liu Bingshan: A Short History of English Literature, Zhenzhou: Henan People’s Publishing House,2000 2. Wu Weiren: History and Anthology of English Literature, Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 1998 3. 李正栓，李翠葶：《英国文学学习指南》，北京：清华大学出版社，2002 4. 万 莉，陈范霞：《英美文学选读》，北京：光明日报社，2001.
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