| Top | Primary Works

Poems. Edited with a critical introd. by Harry Hayden Clark. NY: Hafner Pub. Co., 1960, 1929. PS755 .A5 C6

The poems of Philip Freneau, poet of the American Revolution. (1902) Edited for the Princeton Historical Association by Fred Lewis Pattee. NY: Russell & Russell, 1963. 3 vols. PS755 .A2

Father Bombo's pilgrimage to Mecca, 1770. by Hugh Henry Brackenridge and Philip Freneau; edited, with an introd., by Michael Davitt Bell. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton U Library, 1975. PS708 B5 F3

| Top | Selected Bibliography

Andrews, William D. "Philip Freneau and Francis Hopkinson." American Literature, 1764-1789, The Revolutionary Years. 1977.

Axelrad, Jacob. Philip Freneau, Champion of Democracy. Austin: U of Texas P, 1967. PS758 .A9

Austin, Mary S. Philip Freneau, the Poet of the Revolution: A History of His Life and Times. Detroit: Gale Research Co., 1968. PS758 .A8

Bandara, Samuel B. "Philip Freneau: First American Poet to Write about the Caribbean." Revista Interamericana de Bibliografia Inter American Review of Bibliography 36 (1986): 151-179.

Batten, Charles L., Jr. "A Newly Discovered Poem by Philip Freneau on the Death of General Moreau." American Literature 44 (1972): 59.

Bowden, Mary W. Philip Freneau. Boston: Twayne, 1976. PS758 B6

Cady, Edwin H. "Philip Freneau as Archetypal American Poet." Literature and Ideas in America: Essays in Memory of Harry Hayden Clark. Eds. Robert Falk, G. T. Tanselle, and K. Wicks. Athens: Ohio UP, 1975. 1-19.

Hiltner, Judith R. ed. The Final Poems of Philip Freneau (1827-1828). Delmar, NY: Scholars' Facsims. & Rpts., 1979.

Holland, Laurence B. "Philip Freneau: Poet in the New Nation." The Literary Heritage of New Jersey. Ed. L. Haolland. Princeton, NJ: Van Nostrand, 1964. 3-41.

Leary, Lewis G. That Rascal Freneau: A Study In Literary Failure. NY: Octagon Books, 1964. PS758 .L4

- - -. "The Dream Visions of Philip Freneau." Early American Literature 11 (1976): 156-73.

Marsh, Philip M. The Works of Philip Freneau, a Critical Study. Metuchen, N.J.: Scarecrow P, 1968. PS758 .M32

Nickson, Richard. "A Plea for Captain Philip Freneau." Lamar Journal of the Humanities 11.2 (Fall 1985): 11-22.

Vitzthum, Richard C. Land and Sea: The Lyric Poetry of Philip Freneau. Minneapolis: U of Minnesota P, 1978.

| Top | I. Freneau as Leader of 18th Century Naturalism

1. Fresh interest in nature.

2. The belief that nature is a revelation of God.

3. Humanitarian sympathy for the humble and oppressed.

4. The faith that people are naturally good.

5. That they lived idyllic and benevolent lives in a primitive past before the advent of civilization.

6. The radical doctrine that the golden age will dawn again when social institutions are modified, since they are responsible for existing evil.

| Top | II. Aspects of Freneau

1. Poet of American Independence: Freneau provides incentive and inspiration to the revolution by writing such poems as "The Rising Glory of America" and "Pictures of Columbus."

2. Journalist: Freneau was editor and contributor of The Freeman's Journal (Philadelphia) from 1781-1784. In his writings, he advocated the essence of what is known as Jeffersonian democracy - decentralization of government, equality for the masses, etc.

3. Freneau's Religion: Freneau is described as a deist - a believer in nature and humanity but not a pantheist. In deism, religion becomes an attitude of intellectual belief, not a matter of emotional of spiritual ecstasy. Freneau shows interest and sympathy for the humble and the oppressed.

4. Freneau as Father of American Poetry: His major themes are death, nature, transition, and the human in nature. All of these themes become important in 19th century writing. His famous poems are "The Wild Honey-Suckle" (1786), "The Indian Burying Ground" (1787), "The Dying Indian: Tomo Chequi" (1784), "The Millennium" (1797), "On a Honey Bee" (1809), "To a Caty-Did" (1815), "On the Universality and Other Attributes of the God of Nature," "On the Uniformity and Perfection of Nature," and "On the Religion of Nature" (the last three written in 1815).

Study Questions

1. Although Freneau's "To Sir Toby" is ostensibly about a sugar planter on the island of Jamaica, examine the poem for evidence that Freneau is also writing about southern slavery. Locate references to slavery in his other anthologized poems and summarize the way slavery, for Freneau, contradicts eighteenth-century principles of reason and human rights.

2. Evaluate the language of Freneau's historical poems against specific passages in Paine or Jefferson, and discuss the relative effectiveness of political and poetic voices within the context of American revolution.

MLA Style Citation of this Web Page

Reuben, Paul P. "Chapter 2: Early American Literature - Philip Freneau." PAL: Perspectives in American Literature- A Research and Reference Guide. URL: http://www.csustan.edu/english/reuben/pal/chap2/freneau.html (provide page date or date of your login).  

                  “The Poet of the American Revolution,”  “The Father of American Literature,” and “Pioneer of the New Romanticism Movement” refers to none other that Philip Freneau (Dict. Of Amer. Bio.).  His highly controversial and powerful words helped shape our country into what is now as become.  His strong political ties and ideals have left him branded as a “political propagandist,” but more importantly in recent decades as a “gifted and versatile lyric poet” (Vitzthum 164).

                  Andre Fresneau, the Grandfather of Philip, settled in New York in 1707 and established a wine importing business.  His son Pierre, married Agnes Matson of New Jersey.  They had four children: Philip, Peter, Mary and Margaret.  Pierre and Agnes surrounded their children with books, works or art, and many interesting cultured visitors. The children were also given private tutors, and Philip did well in his studies (Stovall 220).  The wine importing business was doing well, so the family bought a plantation they called “Mount Pleasant” in New Jersey. 

                  In 1768, at the age of fifteen, Freneau was enrolled in the College of New Jersey, now known as Princeton University.  Freneau was so thoroughly prepared that he entered the sophomore class and his mother received a letter of congratulations from the college president John Witherspoon. While in college, Freneau made many friends, including his roommate James Madison, Hugh Henry Brackenridge, and William Bradford.  The four of them decided to revive the once Plain Dealing Club as the American Whig Society, which rivaled the British-oriented Tory Clio-Sophic Society.  The groups arguments lead Freneau to create “Father Bombo’s Pilgrimage to Mecca,” a political satire which ridiculed the intellectual pretensions of his rivals (Stovall 220).  As Freneau got older, he became more and more interested with the development of the American nation. “The Rising Glory of America” was a collaboration between Freneau and Brackenridge.  It pronounced the virtues of a new nation progressing towards its freedom; America would be a land blessed with “sweet liberty! /Without whose aid the nobles genius fails, /And science irretrievable must die” (Stovall 220).  Brackenridge read this at the graduation exercises in 1771 and it was well received.

| Top |                   The next few years of Freneau’s life were full of change and conflict.  His father died the year before he entered Princeton, so Freneau felt he needed to earn an income. He decided to try teaching in Long Island but after two short weeks, decided that he hated it.  In 1772 he decided do a postgraduate study in theology.  During this time he published a collection of poems title The American Village, which contrasts American rural life with the decaying village life of Britain.  Freneau studied theology for two years, but decided this too was not his passion.  Over the next several years of his life he continued to work on his poetry. 

                  As America’s relationship with the British deteriorated, Freneau found more uses for his poetic and satirical skills.  In July 1775, while the British moved in on Boston, Freneau was publishing his patriotic poems, American Liberty, followed by General Gage’s Soliloquy and General Gage’s Confession (Stovall 221).  These writings directly attacked Britain, and encouraged the defense of the colonies.  These poems established his reputation of the “Poet of the Revolution,” but for some, Freneau became a target for rebukes and attacks from the contemporaries.

                  Freneau believed that his main function in life was to write poetry, and not to become a soldier.  With that he chose not to join his countrymen and fight, instead he sought the comfort of the sea.  In 1776, while America was declaring its independence, Freneau accepted a secretaryship to a prominent planter on the Caribbean Island of Santa Cruz (Stovall 221).  Over the next two years he wrote some of his best poetry, and became a pioneer of the romantic movement.  While his quiet and beautiful surroundings where an inspiration to him,  the same surroundings allowed him to observe slavery, and the cruelty it involved. Freneau used his experiences from the Caribbean to write his poem “Jamaica Funeral” (Stovall221).  In July 1778 he decided to escape the horror, and returned to an America that was not much better off. 

                  When he returned home to his mother at Mount Pleasant, he quickly decided to join the New Jersey militia.  Although Freneau saw no serious action, he was willing to help the crew.  In October he was asked to join the ship Indian River, and later the John Couster.  In May of 1780, Freneau was the third mate for the Aurora.  His ship was captured by the British prison ship, Scorpion, where he and his crew were brutally treated.  Freneau became very ill with fever, and was transferred to the Hunter, a hospital ship that continued to treat him poorly (Stovall 221).  Upon his release he returned home to New Jersey where he spent the rest of the war trying to recuperate. 

                  Most of Freneau’s biographers believe that his time he was imprisonment was a key event that affected most of his writing, and lead to some of his best literary works (Vitzthum 167).  In the summer of 1781, he wrote The British Prison-Ship which was based on his time in captivity.  The cruelty he experienced and emphasized in his writings creates the feelings of fear, revulsion, and pity from the reader (Vitzthum 167).  His desire was for  future Americans to remember those who didn’t make it out of these prison ships by saying: “With gentlest footsteps press this kindred dust,/And o’er the tombs, if tombs can then be found,/Place the green turf, and plant the myrtle round.” For decades after, he kept up his vow to the lost and dedicated many of his poems to the prison-ship dead. 

                  Although Freneau enjoyed his time away at sea, he soon found something he enjoyed more.  Eleanor Forman, the daughter of a wealthy New Jersey farmer, quickly became number one in his life.  They married on 15 April 1790, so Freneau accepted a job as editor of the local paper Daily Advertiser in New York City (Stovall 222).  Shortly after, Thomas Jefferson, a long-time friend of Freneau, offered him a translator position in the State Department.  The salary for this job was to be $250 a year, which was far too little for him to accept, so Freneau made no reply. 

| Top |                   Madison and Jefferson late realized that they needed an editor for a Republican paper to oppose Alexander Hamilton’s Federalist paper Gazette of the United States (Stovall 222).  They knew that Freneau could provide the strong libertarian voice that they needed, so Madison decided to visit Freneau in New Jersey and persuade him to join the fight.  After some intense questions from Freneau and some hesitation about holding a government position, Madison finally convinced him.  Freneau began his official duties on 16 August 1791 (Stovall 222).

                  It didn’t take long before the National Gazette had subscribers in every corner of the country.  The first edition was released on 31 October 1791 and came out on Mondays and Thursdays.  The paper is thought of today as “one of the best-written and most-effective enterprises in early American journalism. Jefferson claimed the newspaper prevented America from ‘galloping fast into monarchy,’ and Washington was stung by it into reviling ‘that rascal Freneau’” (Vitzthum 177).  At the same time he was working for the paper, he was editing and manufacturing his new collections of poetry, Poems Written between the Years 1768 & 1794.

                  During his time at the National Gazette, Freneau had the opportunity to be heard, and it didn’t take long till he was doing battle with Hamilton and the Federalists.  Due of his strong opinion, he was frequently the target of attack, but he always responded to these personal attacks with stride.  The most significant issue of the time was on the subject of monarchy.  Many people thought that the best way to have political order in the colonies was to establish a monarchy, with George Washington as king. 

                  The National Gazette remained strong against the Federalists until the Fall of 1793, when a yellow fever plague struck Philadelphia, and more than half of its population fled to the countryside (Stovall 225).  Without the financial income, Freneau was forced to close down the National Gazette only two short years after it had begun.  The National Gazette was “the most interesting newspaper of its day, and it was one of the best weapons the Republicans had” (Stovall 225).

                  Over the next several years, Freneau was the editor of two other newspapers, but neither were as strong as the National Gazette.  By the time he retired from journalism, Freneau was beginning to see some political victories.  A Federalist had lost the 1800 election, and a Republican had won.  Also, the Alien and Sedition Acts had expired, which allowed the editors to be free to speak their minds (Stovall 225). 

                  The last twenty years of Freneau’s life were spent making frequent travels to the sea, and publishing two more volumes of his poetry.  At the age of eighty, Freneau was caught in a snowstorm while walking home, and froze to death.  Although Freneau’s life was filled with failures and frustrations, he produced many memorable contributions. His strong convictions for what he believed to be right separated him from all the others. 

| Top | Primary Works

The Poems of Philip Freneau. Written Chiefly during the Late War  (Philadelphia: Printed by F. Bailey, 1788)

The Miscellaneous Works of Mr. Philip Freneau&(Philadelphia:  Printed by F. Bailey, 1788)

The Monmouth Almanac, for the Year M, DCC, XCV (Middletown Point, N.J.:  Printed & sold by P. Freneau, 1794)

Poems Written between the Years 1768 & 1794& (Monmouth, N.J.:  Printed by the author, 1795)

Letters on Various Interesting and Important Subjects; Many of Which Have Appeared in the Aurora &(Philadelphia:  Printed by D. Hogan for the author, 1799)

Poems Written and Published during the American Revolutionary War, and Now Republished from the Original Manuscripts&2 Volumes (Philadelphia:  From the press of Lydia R. Bailey 1809)

A Collection of Poems, on American Affairs, and a Variety of Other Subjects, Chiefly Moral and Political; Written between the Year 1797 and the Present&2 Volumes (New York: Published by David Longworth, 1815)

Unpublished Freneauana, edited by Charles F. Heartman (New York, 1918)

The Last Poems of Philip Freneau, edited by Lewis Leary (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1945)

Internet Presence

*After an internet source I found about 4,000 sites containing information about Philip Freneau.  However, I didn’t locate a homepage, or a chat room.  The following are some sites about Philip Freneau:

“A Biography of Philip Freneau.” Copyright 2000-2003 Gunnar Bengsston. http://www.americanpoets.com/poets/philipfreneau/ .  Visited on 1 Oct. 2003.

“Freneau, Philip [Morin]”. http://etc.princeton.edu/CampusWWW/Comanpanion/freneau_philip.html . Visited on 1 Oct. 2003.

Philip Freneau (1752-1832).”  Updated 10 August 2003. Visited on 1 Oct. 2003.

http://guweb2.gonzaga.edu/faculty.campbell/enl310/freneau.htm

“Poems of the War of 1812 by Philip Freneau.” http://www.jmu.edu/madison/freneau/ . Visited on 1 Oct. 2003.

“The Philip Freneau Page.” http://www.accd.edu/sac/english/bailey/freneau.htm . Visited 1 Oct.

2003.

VanSpankeren, Kathryn. “An Outline of American Literature.” Updated 6 March 2003.  http://odur.let.reg.nl/~usa/LIT.freneau.htm . Visited on 1 Oct. 2003.

Works Cited

“Philip Freneau.”  Dictionary of American Biography Base Set.  American Council of Learned Societies. 1928-1936.

Stovall, James Glen. “Philip Freneau.” Dictionary of Literary Biography Vol. 43: American Newspaper and Journalists, 1690-1872.  Ed. Perry J. Ashley.  Detroit: Gale Research Co.:      218-226.

Vitzthum, Richard C. “Philip Freneau.”  Dictionary of Literary Biography Vol. 37:  American Writers of the Early Republic.  Ed. Emory Elliot. Detroit: Gale Research Co.: 163-180.